[136] In September 1896, Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1,900 people per week. [70] The harbour was also developed during his governorship, with space for the berthing of 20 ships. [67] With the construction of a good carriage road up the Bhor Ghat during the regimes of Mountstuart Elphinstone and Sir John Malcolm gave better access from Bombay to the Deccan. So the Dabbawala service was set up to bring lunch to these people in their workplace straight from their home. John, Lord Elphinstone. [37] During 14911494, the islands suffered sea piracies from Bahadur Khan Gilani, a nobleman of the Bahamani Sultanate. Victorian Gothic Growth of Mumbai The following is a timeline of the growth of Mumbai 's population over the last four centuries: 1661: 10000 inhabitants [1] 1664: 15000 [1] 1673: 60000 [1] (Fryer) 1675: 60000 1718: 16000 [1] (Cobbe) 1744: 70000 [1] (Niebuhr) (large influx of people during the busy season) the development of Mahim and Bandra had to wait another half a century. The islands were leased to Mestre Diogo in 1534. It was converted into a township in 1949, and named Ulhasnagar by the then Governor-General of India, C. Indigenous tribals have inhabited Mumbai (Bombay) since the Stone Age. What impact did the relentless growth have on the land, cultures and identity - as well its relationship to the wider country? The city received 37inches (940 millimeters) of rain in 24 hours the most any Indian city has ever received in a single day. The line was inaugurated on April 6, 1853. Mumbai ca. My semester final project is regarding the industrialization and deindustrialization of Mumbai/Bombay centered around two significant periods, the plague of 1896 and the textile mills strike of 1984. Overall, 15.3 percent of Americans lived in cities in 1850. The destruction of the Babri Masjid (Mosque of Bbur) in Ayodhya in December 1992 sparked sectarian rioting in Bombay and throughout India that lasted into early 1993 and caused the deaths of hundreds of people. Rethinking the Twentieth-Century History ofMumbai* History, Culture and the Indian City: Essays by Rajnarayan Chandavarkar. Mahim to Sion by a causeway. [32] Firishta, a Persian historian, recorded that by 1429 the seat of government of the Gujarat Sultanate in north Konkan had transferred from Thane to Mahim. War of Independence, in 1857, makes a convenient watershed between these [17] The Elephanta Caves also dates back to the sixth century. The Koli, an aboriginal tribe of fishermen, were the earliest known inhabitants of present-day Mumbai, though Paleolithic stone implements found at Kandivli, in Greater Mumbai, indicate that the area has been inhabited by humans for hundreds of thousands of years. But, with the end of the Civil War, cotton prices crashed and the bubble burst. The citys infrastructure was improved considerably with the construction of new highways and bridges, expansion of port facilities, and the inauguration of new public-transit systems. East India Company at the beginning of the century. In 1857 the first spinning and weaving mill was established, and by 1860 the city had become the largest cotton market in India. In November 1664, Shipman's successor Humphrey Cooke agreed to accept Bombay without its dependencies. [citation needed] During the English East India Company's rule in mid-18th century, it emerged as an important port city, having maritime trade contacts with Mecca, Basra etc. The existence of such 20th Century History of Mumbai: Mumbai/Bombay pages The old wall [49] Salsette was granted for three years to Joo Rodrigues Dantas, Cosme Corres, and Manuel Corres. [139] The significant results of the plague was the creation of the Bombay City Improvement Trust on 9 December 1898[140] and the Haffkine Institute on 10 January 1899 by Waldemar Haffkine. was called a wadi. [49] The St. Andrew Church at Bandra was built in 1575. [194] On 11 July 2006, a series of seven bomb blasts took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai at Khar, Mahim, Matunga, Jogeshwari, Borivali, and one between Khar and Santa Cruz. An ambitious scheme for the construction of a seawall in Back Bay to reclaim an area of 1,300 acres (525 hectares) of land was proposed in 1918, but it was not finished until the completion of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose Road (Marine Drive) from Nariman Point to Malabar Pointthe first two-way highway of its kind in Indiaafter World War II (193945). 8.1, the share of the manufacturing sector in India (total of manufacturing and small scale and cottage industries) in total NDP grew gradually from approximately 10% in the early 20th century to over 20% in the 1960s. [6] Buddhist monks, scholars, and artists created the artwork, inscriptions, and sculpture of the Kanheri Caves in the mid third century BCE[9] and Mahakali Caves. [98] The construction of the Sion Causeway was completed in 1802 by Governor Jonathan Duncan. [183] In 1996, the newly elected Shiv Sena-led government renamed the city of Bombay to the native name Mumbai, after the Koli native Marathi people Goddess Mumbadevi. [51], The Portuguese encouraged intermarriage with the local population, and strongly supported the Roman Catholic Church. These migrants also played a major role in the political discourse of the city. The construction of the new mint commenced in 1825. [72] Yakut Khan, the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire, landed at Bombay in October 1672 and ravaged the local inhabitants there. [123] The Bombay Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in Asia, was established in 1875. [citation needed] Later, between the 2nd century BCE and 10th century CE, the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties: the Satavahanas, Abhiras, Vakatakas, Kalachuris, Konkan Mauryas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Silharas& Chollas. [97] The construction of the Sion Causeway (Duncan Causeway) commenced in 1798. [25] He built the first Babulnath temple in the region and introduced many fruit-bearing trees, including coconut palms to the islands. other things, set out the possibility of demolition of encroachments. [55] By 1710, the construction of Bombay Castle was finished, which fortified the islands from sea attacks by European pirates and the Marathas. [55] In 1670, the Parsi businessman Bhimjee Parikh imported the first printing press into Bombay. Before the War of Independence, India was The Shiv Sena party was established on 19 June 1966 by Bombay cartoonist Bal Thackeray, out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalization of the native Marathi people in their native state Maharashtra. Such a group of chawls [155] Bombay was affected by the Great Depression of 1929, which saw a stagnation of mill industry and economy from 1933 to 1939. [201] The city again saw a series of three coordinated bomb explosions at different locations on 13 July 2011 between 18:54 and 19:06 IST. Modern Asian Studies promotes an understanding of contemporary Asia and its rich inheritance. [citation needed]. America moves to the city (article) | Khan Academy [45] The marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Portugal on 8 May 1661 placed Bombay in British possession as a part of Catherine's dowry to Charles. broke out this year. [99] On 17 February 1803, a fire raged through the town, razing many localities around the Old Fort, subsequently the British had to plan a new town with wider roads. [142] The cotton mill industry was adversely affected during 1900 and 1901 due to the flight of workers because of the plague. the Historian Paul Moon on Auckland through the 20th century | RNZ 1801 - Siddhivinayak temple built at Prabhadevi. [175] Nehru Science Centre, India's largest interactive science centre, was established in 1972 at Worli in Bombay. [90] However, the project was rejected by the British East India Company in 1783. The Lord Willingdon Memorial incident of December 1918 saw the handicap of Home Rulers in Bombay. Mumbai has seen significant growth in its population between 1950 and 2020. a bungalow for himself on Malabar Hill. Even before the island was joined to Bombay, it was a cantonment [55] The shipbuilding industry started in Bombay in 1735[83] and soon the Naval Dockyard was established in the same year. [111] The first-ever Indian railway line began operations between Bombay and neighbouring Thane over a distance of 21 miles on 16 April 1853. The 1920 Census revealed that more Americans lived in cities than the countryside for the first time. [103] In the same year, monthly communication was established between Bombay and London. [73] The Treaty of Westminster concluded between England and the Netherlands in 1674, relieved the British settlements in Bombay of further apprehension from the Dutch. An author who grew up in Mumbai calls his city an "urban catastrophe." [112] The Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company was the first cotton mill to be established in the city on 7 July 1854 at Tardeo in Central Bombay. [115] The Commercial Bank, the Chartered Mercantile, the Agra and United Service, the Chartered and the Central Bank of Western India were established in Bombay attracting a considerable industrial population. Afghan Church The Remaking of Bombay The last years of the 19th century ended with a textile manufacturing boom, and attracted huge numbers of workers to a city unprepared to give them healthy living quarters. ", Kooiman, Dick. more or less completed by the first half of the century. [149] In 1926, the Back Bay scandal occurred, when the Bombay Development Department under the British reclaimed the Back Bay area in Bombay after the financial crisis incidental to the post-war slump in the city. together Bombay and Mahim, it began the process that was to be completed The islands were joined to the mainland and each other by causeways, and the city's university and major hospitals were founded. The Asiatic Society. 10 people were killed and 70 were injured. The city became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century, it was the centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 and Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946. It publishes over 2,500 books a year for distribution in more than 200 countries. This paper calls upon historians to continue to apply the tools of social history, particularly its reliance on close microcosmic studies of particular places and groups over long periods of time, as they try to bridge the gap between the early twentieth century and the later twentieth century. [92] Although Salsette was under the British, but the introduction of contraband goods from Salsette to other parts of Bombay was prevented. [103] The Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1872, providing a modern framework of governance for the rapidly growing city. A crowded town had grown up north of the walled fort and the eastern port At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured. area; it remains so even now. Welgos/Getty Images. Much of this money was channelled In the latter part of the 19th century, many cotton spinning and weaving mills also came up in Bombay. gained paramount importance in the world cotton trade. In the meanwhile, Castella de Aguada (Fort of the Waterpoint) was built by the Portuguese at Bandra in 1640 as a watchtower overlooking the Mahim Bay, the Arabian Sea and the southern island of Mahim. [180] In December 1992 January 93, over 1,000 people were killed and the city paralyzed by communal riots between the Hindus and the Muslims caused by the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. [107] On 3 November 1845, the Grant Medical College and hospital, the third in the country, was founded by Governor Robert Grant. As new provinces were settled, new cities began to spring up, and by the 1910s half of all Canadians were living urban, rather than rural lives for the first time. The bomb killed 1 and injured 25. agreement with the East India Company. [146] Lord Willingdon convened the Provincial War Conference at Bombay on 10 June 1918, whose objective was to seek the co-operation of the people in the World War I measures which the British Government thought it necessary to take in the Bombay Presidency. [45] Dorabji Nanabhoy, a trader, was the first Parsi to settle in Bombay in 1640. [178] On 17 May 1984, riots broke out in Bombay, Thane, and Bhiwandi after a saffron flag was placed at the top of a mosque. The American Civil War (186165) and the resulting cutoff of cotton supplies to Britain caused a great trade boom in Bombay. To begin with, employers accommodated these workers in [11], The Silhara dynasty of Konkan ruled the region between 810 and 1260. ritish people also set up textiles factories in Mumbai itself with huge numbers migrating from all over the region to work in the factories during the 19th and 20th century. Bombay was hardly affected. Cholera epidemics hit unsanitary cities hardest, and The Times newspaper in London labelled cholera "the best of all sanitary reformers". [66] A customs house was also built. Please help by moving some material from it into the body of the article. [188] The bombing occurred on the tenth anniversary of the demolition of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya. Mumbai/Bombay has long been the subject of sophisticated work by historians. Indigenous tribals have inhabited Mumbai (Bombay) since the Stone Age. in this century. Mumbai History Facts and Timeline - World Guides This resulted in a large influx of traders, artisans, merhcants and labourers into the city. By Mariam Dossal. Overcrowding, traffic congestion, environmental pollution, and widespread poverty, however, remained major ongoing problems. Around 2 people were killed and 28 were injured. In 2009, 12 percent of American workers belonged to unions. [116] The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 increased the demand for cotton in the West, and led to an enormous increase in cotton-trade. [122] Violent Parsi-Muslim riots again broke out in February 1874, which were caused by an article on Muhammad published by a Parsi resident. Note: This article is a review of another work, such as a book, film, musical composition, etc. [144] On 22 July 1908, Lokmanya Tilak, the principal advocate of the Swadeshi movement in Bombay, was sentenced to six years rigorous imprisonment, on the charge of writing inflammatory articles against the Government in his newspaper Kesari. 19th Century Transportation Movement Westward expansion and the growth of the United States during the 19th century sparked a need for a better transportation infrastructure. [151] In the late 1920s, many Persians migrated to Bombay from Yazd to escape the drought in Iran. East India Company; after the war it reverted to the Crown. [23] The Italian traveler Marco Polo's fleet of thirteen Chinese ships passed through Mumbai Harbour during May September 1292. can now only be seen as part of the boundary wall of St. George Hospital, Mumbai was lashed by torrential rains on 2627 July 2005, during which the city was brought to a complete standstill. [85] The Maratha victory forced the British to push settlements within the fort walls of the city. In the second half of the 19th century, a large textile industry grew up in the city and surrounding towns, operated by Indian entrepreneurs. Sir Bartle Frere became the Ahmad Shah I responded with a large army and navy under Jafar Khan leading to the defeat of Ahmad Shah I Wali. Company was accused of mismanagement. [200] There were a series of ten coordinated terrorist attacks by 10 armed Pakistani men using automatic weapons and grenades which began on 26 November 2008 and ended on 29 November 2008. [2] After India's independence in 1947, the territory of Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State. It was part of Ashokas empire in the 3rd century bce, and in the 2nd century ce it was known as Heptanesia to Ptolemy, the ancient Egyptian astronomer and geographer of Greek descent. removal of the fortifications. [citation needed] Economic development characterised British Bombay in the 19th century, the first-ever Indian railway line commenced operations between Bombay harbour and Taana city in 1853. [94] In 1784, the Hornby Vellard project was completed and soon reclamations at Worli and Mahalaxmi followed. [130] The Bombay Millowners' Association was formed in February 1875 by Dinshaw Maneckji Petit in order to lourdes central school protect interests of workers threatened by possible factory and tariff legislation by the British. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Bombay was renamed Mumbai on 6 March 1996. Mumbai - History | Britannica 1890. India reverted to the British Crown. During the latter half It also shaped sports culture as well as the sports industry specifically Baseball and the Football Association into what is today. By 2020 it had reached an estimated population of 20 million, making it the 9th largest city by population in the world. Governor of Bombay between 1819 and 1827. Cambridge Journals publishes over 250 peer-reviewed academic journals across a wide range of subject areas, in print and online. By 1920, more Americans lived in cities than in rural areas for the first time in US history. The Making of Bombay - JSTOR Eventually, families of [110] The first political organization of the Bombay Presidency, the Bombay Association, was started on 26 August 1852, to vent public grievances to the British. ", "Local 'army' offers to protect Bombay's 'Castella', "Security, the central component of an early modern institutional matrix; 17th century Bombay's Economic Growth", International Society for New Institutional Economics (ISNIE), "Mazgaon fort was blown to pieces 313 years ago", Calcutta Magazine and Monthly Register 1832, Acquisition, Changes, and Staff (Acquisition, 17741817, "BMC allots Rs 14 cr to upgrade Mahim Causeway", Grant Medical College and Sir J.J. Gr.of Hospitals, "Sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit, first Baronet, 18231901", "From Distrust to Reconciliation (The Making of the Ganesh Utsav in Maharashtra)", "The Swadeshi Movement: Culmination of Cultural Nationalism", "BMC will give jobs to kin of Samyukta Maharashtra martyrs", Heras Institute of Indian History and Culture 1983, "About Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)", "The Great Mumbai Textile Strike 25 Years On", "Profile of Jawaharlal Nehru Custom House (Nhava Sheva)", "Victims await Mumbai 1993 blasts justice", "Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus chugs towards a new heritage look", "Blast outside Ghatkopar station in Mumbai, 2 killed", "Blast in Ghatkopar in Mumbai, 4 killed and 32 injured", "At least 174 killed in Indian train blasts", "India police: Pakistan spy agency behind Mumbai bombings", "Thackeray continues tirade against North Indians", "North Indian taxi drivers attacked in Mumbai", "HM announces measures to enhance security", "3 bomb blasts in Mumbai; 8 killed, 70 injured", "Death toll in Mumbai terror blasts rises to 19", "International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. of this century, the importance of Bombay as a centre of cotton trade, [88] In 1769, Fort George was built on the site of the Dongri Fort[89] and in 1770, the Mazagaon docks were built. [199] Attacks included assault on North Indian taxi drivers and damage of their vehicles. The Wellington Pier (Apollo Bunder) in the north of Colaba was opened for passenger traffic in 1819 and the Elphinstone High School was established in 1822. Cambridge University Press (www.cambridge.org) is the publishing division of the University of Cambridge, one of the worlds leading research institutions and winner of 81 Nobel Prizes. 75 people were killed and 350 were injured. It immediately entered into an [113] The Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway (BB&CI) was incorporated in 1855.[114]. [138] On 9 March 1898, there was a serious riot which started with a sudden outbreak of hostility against the measures adopted by Government for suppression of plague. [154] On 15 October 1932 industrialist and aviator J.R.D. As a result of Mumbai's 18th- and 19th-century history as a trading, commercial and manufacturing hub, the population of the city had swollen hugely as migrants from swathes of India's countryside arrived to find work. [187], During the 21st century, the city suffered several bombings. with the opening of Bombay's first cotton mill, it was to become an Mumbai is India's largest industrial, financial and commercial centre. Population growth would begin to increase in the 1920s, as a result of falling mortality. In the 19th and early 20 century, the population of Mumbai mainly consisted of those born outside. VT, university, BMC, town hall, etc. [50] Garcia de Orta, a Portuguese physician and botanist, was granted the possession of Bombay in 1554 by viceroy Pedro Mascarenhas. The Cotton Exchange was established in [18] Christianity arrived in the islands during the sixth century, when the Nestorian Church made its presence in India. According to Fig. blow up the town during the festival of Diwali. workers began to migrate to Bombay, and each room in a chawl would have 20th century. the In Mumbai, there were three or four of these tribes. built by the government. Its expanded book review section offers detailed and in-depth analysis of recent literature. and its hinterland was to become necessary. [120] Tramway communication was instituted in 1873. For terms and use, please refer to our Terms and Conditions In the postwar years the development of residential quarters in suburban areas was begun, and the administration of Bombay city through a municipal corporation was extended to the suburbs of Greater Bombay. 2 Every country is shown in red. [177] The Great Bombay Textile Strike was called on 18 January 1982 by trade union leader Dutta Samant, where nearly 250,000 workers and more than 50 textile mills in Bombay went on strike. [27] The Pathare Prabhus, one of the earliest settlers of the city, were brought to Mahim from Patan and other parts of Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev during his reign. [66] George Oxenden became the first Governor of Bombay under the English East India Company on 23 September 1668. With the opening of [21] The Walkeshwar Temple was constructed during the 10th century[22] and the Banganga Tank during the 12th century under the patronage of the Silhara rulers. Constructions. Historians of the city have tended to focus primarily on the period before 1930; this tendency has seriously limited our understanding of the dramatic transformations that have taken place in Bombay over the course of the twentieth century. [162] In April 1950, Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs and Bombay City. [47] The San Miguel (St. Michael Church) in Mahim, one of the oldest churches in Bombay, was built by the Portuguese in 1540. . Later, Cooke managed to acquire Mahim, Sion, Dharavi, and Wadala for the English. The plague killed thousands, and many fled the city leading to a drastic fall in the population of the city. In 1661 it came under British control as part of the marriage settlement between King Charles II and Catherine of Braganza, sister of the king of Portugal. [84] By the middle of the eighteenth century, Bombay began to grow into a major trading town and soon Bhandaris from Chaul in Maharashtra, Vanjaris from the Western Ghat mountain ranges of Maharashtra, Africans from Madagascar, Bhatias from Rajasthan, Vaishya Vanis, Goud Saraswat Brahmins, Daivajnas from konkan, ironsmiths and weavers from Gujarat migrated to the islands. The decay of Mughal power in Delhi, the Mughal-Maratha rivalries, and the instability in Gujarat drove artisans and merchants to the islands for refuge, and Bombay began to grow. [67], In 1838, the islands of Colaba and Little Colaba were connected to Bombay by the Colaba Causeway. Colaba in 1844, establishing this newly opened up section as an The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into Bombay State. There was strong residents were paying taxes to the civil authorities for the upkeep and slums developed around the mills and the harbour. October, 1884 Protocols of the Proceedings", "The New Annual Register, Or General Repository of History, Politics, and Literature, for the Year 1813", "Bombay in the making: Being mainly a history of the origin and growth of judicial institutions in the Western Presidency, 16611726", "Indian Shipping: A Case Study of the Working of Imperialism", "Portuguese Settlements on the Western Coast", "Essays on Indian Antiquities, Historic, Numismatic, and Palographic, of the Late James Prinsep", "Bombay Place-Names and Street-Names:An excursion into the by-ways of the history of Bombay City", Portuguese India History: The Northern Province: Bassein, Bombay-Mumbai, Damao, Chaul, A collection of pages on Mumbai's History, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (Prince of Wales Museum), Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport (BEST), Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, Institute of Chemical Technology (formerly UDCT), Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute (VJTI), Jamnalal Bajaj Institute of Management Studies (JBIMS), SP Jain Institute of Management and Research, Sydenham Institute of Management Studies, Research and Entrepreneurship Education(SIMSREE), Ramniranjan Anandilal Podar College of Commerce and Economics, V. G. Vaze College of Arts, Science and Commerce, Raja Shivaji Vidyalaya (King George High School), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), Centre for Excellence in Basic Sciences (UM-DAE CBS), Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago, Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Mumbai&oldid=1150987842, Articles with dead external links from August 2021, Articles with dead external links from March 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with dead external links from February 2023, Wikipedia introduction cleanup from June 2022, Articles covered by WikiProject Wikify from June 2022, All articles covered by WikiProject Wikify, Articles with unsourced statements from February 2022, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan. Population of India 1800-2020 | Statista The city's physical structure and land use has been greatly influenced by its movement patterns (migration into . As against this, the colonial powers added an average of about 240,000 square miles (620,000 square kilometres) a year between the late 1870s and World War I (1914-18). [184][185] Soon colonial British names were shed to assert or reassert local names,[186] such as Victoria Terminus being renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus on 4 March 1996, after the 17th century Marathi King Shivaji. [67] The Bank of Bombay, the oldest bank in the city, was established in 1840,[106] and the Bank of Western India in 1842. Yet, as the population increased, unkempt, overcrowded, and unsanitary conditions became more widespread. was then made Commissioner of the Deccan in 1818. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy donated the entire sum of money required to join Under new building rules set up in 1748, many houses were demolished and the population was redistributed, partially on newly reclaimed land. [67] In July 1832, the Parsi riots took place in consequence of a Government order for the destruction of pariah dogs which infested the city. "Workers' politics and the mill districts in Bombay between the wars. 19th century. The three maps show the global history of life expectancy over the last two centuries. 1880s. Nothing happenned, but The 20th century began with a damage limitation exercise. He was forced to retire to the island of Anjediva in North Canara and died there in October 1664. (PDF) Limits to Urban Growth - The case of Mumbai - ResearchGate Why Apple is betting big on India | The Economist Under the Yadavas of Devagiri (later Daulatabad; 11871318), the settlement of Mahikavati (Mahim) on Bombay Island was founded in response to raids from the north by the Khalji dynasty of Hindustan in 1294. The movement was started as a result of the Rowlatt Act, which indefinitely extended emergency measures during World War I in order to control public unrest. The result is his book Auckland: The Twentieth-Century . From 1956 until 1960 Bombay was the scene of intense Maratha protests against the two-language (Marathi-Gujarati) makeup of Bombay state (of which Bombay remained the capital), a legacy of British imperialism.